Problem: Need a literature bibliography for a dissertation in paragraph form: Racial disparities exist at every stage of the U.S. criminal justice system. Compared to observably similar whites, blacks are more likely to be searched for contraband (Antonovics and Knight 2009), more likely to experience police force (Fryer 2016), more likely to be charged with a serious offense (Rehavi and Starr 2014), more likely to be convicted (Anwar, Bayer, and Hjalmarson 2012), and more likely to be incarcerated (Abrams, Bertrand, and Mullainathan 2012). Racial disparities are particularly prominent in the setting of bail: in our data, black defendants are 3.6 percentage points more likely to be assigned monetary bail than white defendants and, conditional on being assigned monetary bail, receive bail amounts that are $9,923 greater.1 One view is that these racial disparities are driven by statistical discrimination, or the use of observable group traits (such as race) to form accurate beliefs about the unobservable characteristics of defendants (e.g., Phelps 1972; Arrow 1973). A second view is that statistical discrimination alone cannot explain these disparities, leaving a role for various forms of racial bias, such as racial animus (e.g., Becker 1957) or inaccurate racial stereotypes (e.g., Bordalo et al. 2016). However, distinguishing between these contrasting explanations remains an empirical challenge. Need Assignment Help?