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circulatory systems in animalsin animals that have efficient circulatory systems and readily permeable vascular skins gas exchange occurs through the
modes of respirationmany small organisms obtain oxygen by diffusion through their body surfaces they do not have any specialised respiratory organs
diffusion of gases gases diffuse from areas of higher partial pressure to areas of lower partial pressure the diffusion along the partial pressure
respiratory gases -respirationphysiologically the most important gases are oxygen carbon dioxide and nitrogen molecular oxygen comprises 21 of the
respirationit is important that you comprehend the main points because they ate essential for your understanding of respiratory physiology to enter
energy storage as we said above food intake and energy expenditure for animals is approximately equal if energy expenditure exceeds food intake then
energy metabolismin the preceding sections of the unit you studied how the products of digestion of food viz amino acids sugars and fatty acids are
coordination of digestion you have learnt that digestion is a process in which large food molecules arc broken down step by step into their
maintenance of gut liningafter studying the digestive enzymes you would wonder why the gut linings are not digested themselves this is because
lipid digestion digestion of fats is also similar in both invertebrates and vertebrates lipases are the - enzymes that hydrolyse fats a single lipase
carbohydrate digestionsimple sugars like glucose and fructose can be absorbed and metabolised directly but disaccharides such as sucrose or lactose
protein digestionenzymes that digest proteins are divided into two groups endopeptidases and exopeptidases according to site of their action in the
digestive enzymesnow let us consider the general principles of digestion that are applicable t6all animals we will start with the digestive enzymes
functional regions of digestive systemin general the digestive system of metazoans is divided into 4 major functional regions of reception
digestion the nutritional requirements and the various ways used by heterotrophic organisms to obtain nutrition whether food is used to give energy
feeding on liquids animals feeding on liquids are generally highly specialised for their feeding habits certain protozoa endoparasites and aquatic
minerals and trace elementsoxygen carbon hydrogen and nitrogen are the most common elements that make up 96 of the total weight of a mammal the next
waterwater is the most important constituent of all living tissue it forms up to 95 of the fresh weight of some animals we all know that water is
vitamins animals cannot sustain a healthy life if they are fed on a diet having only carbohydrates fats and proteins they also require vitamins in
lipids all animal tissues contain lipids or fats as essential components of cell membrane it is also stored in certain tissues lipids are bodys chief
carbohydrates fifty five to seventy per cent of the required energy in animals is derived from carbohydrates however fats and proteins can also be
proteinsproteins are continually synthesised in the cells as they are the principal component required for growth proteins are composed of amino
nutritionas we have said earlier all animals are heterotrophs and require food from the environment what is this food made up of if the food of a
nutrition feeding digestionall organisms require a fairly steady supply of nutrient materials from the environment to obtain energy in order to stay
metazoan branchesthe kingdom animalia comprises all the multicellular animals metazoans these are divided into three