Problem:
Summarize sections below.
Conceptualization Using Behavior Personality Theory
Unlike most theories of psychotherapy described in this book, behavior therapy does not have a comprehensive personality theory from which it is derived. Learning theories have been developed to explain personality, but few have been integrated into the practice of behavior therapy. For example, Dollard and Miller (1950) translated psychoanalytic concepts into learning theory terminology, based in part on the work of Hull (1943). Mowrer (1950) suggested two important learning processes to explain psychological disorder: the tendency to find a solution to a problem and learning based on expectations and beliefs. A social learning theory that stresses behavior potential, expectancies, reinforcement value, and situational factors was developed by Rotter (1954). Hans Eysenck's theory of traits is based on underlying behaviors that focus on introversion-extraversion and stability-neuroticism (Eysenck, 1970). Believing that people's behaviors are consistent across time but may differ depending upon the nature of the situation, Mischel (1973) has stressed the importance of competencies, personal constructs, values, and self-regulating systems in personality development. Although these theories have had relatively little impact on the practice of behavior therapy, Bandura's social learning theory (discussed previously) has had an impact on behavior therapy through the practice of modeling and the emphasis on self-observation. The important principles that underlie most of these theories are those developed through research on classical and operant conditioning and on observational learning.
Basic principles of behavior, especially those derived from operant conditioning, describe reinforcement, the process in which the consequences of behavior increase the likelihood that a behavior will be performed again. Lack of reinforcement can bring about extinction of behavior. Through a variety of processes, behavior can be shaped, narrowed (discrimination), broadened (generalized), or otherwise changed. Another key principle of basic learning is that of learning through observation. Implicit in the study of behavior is that behavior has antecedents (events occurring before the behavior is performed) and consequences (events occurring after a behavior is performed) (Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010). An important aspect of behavior therapy is the attention paid to each specific situation. Examples in this chapter show therapeutic and other situations that illustrate these basic principles of behavior.
Positive Reinforcement
A positive event presented as a consequence of a person's performing a behavior is called positive reinforcement. When a positive event follows a behavior, and that behavior increases in frequency, the event is a positive reinforcer (Miltenberger, 2012; Piazza, Roane, & Karsten, 2011). If you say "Thank you" to a friend who brings you a sandwich, your expression of thanks is a positive reinforcer for the act of your friend, which increases the chance that your friend will do something like this for you or someone else in the future. If the friend does something positive for you again, you have observed positive reinforcement, which is different from a reward-something given to or awarded to someone for doing something. Rewards do not necessarily increase the probability that the frequency of a response following a favorable event will increase, whereas a positive reinforcer does. Although positive reinforcement appears simple, it can be used in ways that have a variety of effects on behavior (Ishii, 2013).
Positive reinforcement is considered to be one of the most widely used behavior therapy procedures because of its effectiveness in bringing about positive changes in behavior and its compatibility with cultural values (Groden & Cautela, 1981). Intermittent positive reinforcement lasts longer than continuous positive reinforcement. Intermittent reinforcement can be given at time intervals (an interval schedule) or after a certain number of correct responses (ratio reinforcement).
Kazdin (2001) gives a brief example from Kirby and Shields (1972) of the use of social reinforcement with a seventh-grade boy who is doing poorly in school and not doing his work. In the following example, praise is used as a positive reinforcer and is provided on an intermittent schedule of reinforcement in which the ratio of correct responses to praise became greater and greater (that is, praise was frequent at first, but tapered off later):
For example, in one program, praise was used to alter the behavior of a 13-year-old boy named Tom in a seventh-grade classroom (Kirby & Shields, 1972). Tom was of average intelligence but was doing poorly on his class assignments, particularly the arithmetic assignments. Also, he rarely paid attention to the lesson and constantly had to be reminded to work. Praise was used to improve his performance on arithmetic assignments. Each day in class, after he completed the arithmetic assignment, he was praised for correct answers on his arithmetic worksheet. At first, every couple of responses were praised, but the number of correct problems required for praise was gradually increased. The praise consisted merely of saying, "Good work," "Excellent job," and similar things. (p. 160)
Negative Reinforcement
Like positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement increases a behavior. It should not be confused with punishment, which decreases or weakens a behavior. In negative reinforcement, an undesirable consequence of a behavior is removed, which increases the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. For example, if you are waiting in the rain for a friend to meet you and you have an umbrella with you, you open it up. The umbrella keeps the rain off you. The next several times you carry an umbrella with you, you are more likely to use it if the rain is of the same intensity, increasing the likelihood of a positive behavior (Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010). Need Assignment Help?