Problem:
Overview of the Study
Labor migration in Jamaica frequently results in prolonged marital separation, contributing to psychological and relational strain among spouses who remain behind (Nwankwo & Govia, 2022; Rai et al., 2023). Recent estimates indicate that between 39% and 45% of Jamaican-born individuals resided abroad between 2016 and 2020, highlighting the scale of migration-related family separation (Di Giorgio et al., 2024). Studies also link prolonged separation to psychological distress among non-migrant spouses (Nwankwo & Govia, 2022; Rai et al., 2023). These findings indicate that spouses may differ in how they interpret and respond to prolonged migration-related separation in everyday life.
The purpose of this interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) study is to explore how Jamaican left-behind spouses make sense of migration-related marital separation, particularly how this experience is interpreted in relation to shared decision-making and perceived autonomy, and how it is reflected in coping experiences, psychological well-being, and marital functioning. This qualitative IPA study uses semi-structured interviews supplemented by brief reflective diaries to examine participants' accounts of prolonged migration-related marital separation. This approach is well-suited to exploring lived experiences and meaning-making processes (Eatough & Smith, 2017; Smith et al., 2021). The study is informed by the transactional model of stress and coping (TMSC) and self-determination theory (SDT), which provide a framework for examining appraisal processes, shared decision-making, and perceived autonomy in relation to prolonged separation (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Ryan & Deci, 2017). These frameworks provide an interpretive basis for examining coping, psychological well-being, and marital functioning during separation. Need Assignment Help?
Background of the Problem
Prolonged spousal separation associated with migration is a significant relational stressor requiring ongoing psychological adaptation (Kofman et al., 2022; Rai et al., 2023). In Jamaica, where migration is a longstanding and structurally embedded feature of social and economic life, migration-related marital separation is a common aspect of transnational family arrangements rather than an isolated occurrence (Di Giorgio et al., 2024; Jaupart, 2023). These conditions situate prolonged separation within the broader context of Jamaican family and community life.
Jamaica has experienced exceptionally high levels of emigration. More than 1.1 million Jamaican-born individuals were living abroad in 2020, representing approximately 39.7% of Jamaica's population and underscoring the extent to which migration-related family and marital separation has become a common feature of Jamaican life (Di Giorgio et al., 2024). Across the wider Caribbean, the number of emigrants increased from approximately 2.5 million in 1990 to more than 6.1 million in 2020, with the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Jamaica accounting for nearly 75% of all Caribbean emigrants (Jaupart, 2023). Together, these figures indicate that many Jamaican families must adapt to transnational living arrangements in which one spouse resides and works abroad while the other remains behind.
The widespread nature of emigration in Jamaica reflects the central role that migration plays in sustaining households through remittances. In Jamaica, remittance inflows account for approximately 16.2% of gross domestic product, and recent estimates indicate that approximately 40% of households receive financial support from relatives living abroad (Di Giorgio et al., 2024; World Bank, 2024). These figures indicate that overseas employment is often understood as a routine household response to economic necessity rather than as a decision made in the absence of substantial constraint. Because remittances constitute a substantial source of household income, migration is often pursued to improve economic security (Jaupart, 2023; World Bank, 2022). Even though remittances may alleviate some financial pressures, economic support does not fully offset the emotional and relational demands associated with extended marital separation (Kurmi, 2026). At the same time, economic benefits occur within arrangements that require sustained separation, in which financial stability may coexist with psychological and relational strain.
Existing evidence from non-Caribbean contexts indicates that migration-related separation is associated with psychological distress. In a systematic review, Manandhar et al. (2023) examined 15 studies that focused on the mental health of left-behind women. Of these studies, 13 were conducted in Asia, 1 in Africa, and 1 in the Caribbean. Across 9 of the 13 studies that compared these groups, women whose husbands have migrated for employment were more likely to report psychological difficulties than women living with their spouses. Drawing on these findings, Kurmi (2026) noted that more than 40% of women living in migrant households reported moderate-to-severe emotional distress.
Additional population-based research provides further quantitative evidence. A study in China reported that 35.7% of rural left-behind women experienced depressive symptoms, while related research found that 44.05% of individuals with left-behind experiences reported obsessive-compulsive symptoms (Niu & Wang, 2024; Zheng & Yan, 2025). Using data from the China Family Panel Studies (n = 8,096 married respondents), Zheng and Yan (2025) found that individuals experiencing long-term left-behind status reported higher depression scores (15.62 vs. 13.78 in the overall sample) and lower marital satisfaction (4.04 vs. 4.47). Depression scores were also elevated among individuals experiencing short-term separation (14.65) and remained above baseline after spouses reunited (14.35), suggesting that the psychological effects of separation may emerge early and persist over time.
Although these estimates are drawn largely from non-Caribbean contexts, they provide a preliminary indication of the level of psychological distress that may be present in Jamaica, where migration affects many households. Together, these findings indicate that migration-related separation is associated with both psychological distress and relational challenges among non-migrant spouses. Recent research identifies chronic loneliness, role strain, and relational stress as substantial and often underestimated challenges among left-behind partners (Escrig-Pinol et al., 2023; Nwankwo & Govia, 2022).
Jamaica-based evidence further documents adverse psychological and health-related outcomes among non-migrant partners. Men with a spouse or partner living overseas were less likely to report feeling happy (OR = 0.34, 95% CI [0.11, 1.09]) and reported a greater number of physical illness symptoms (β = 3.215, p = .013) than men whose spouse or partner continued to reside in Jamaica. In the same study, 52% of women and 45% of men reported having experienced trauma, highlighting the broader psychosocial challenges present among non-migrant adults (Nwankwo & Govia, 2022). These findings suggest that migration-related spousal separation may be associated with reduced psychological well-being and greater stress-related health complaints among spouses who remain in Jamaica.
Evidence from other contexts similarly documents declines in marital functioning. In a cross-sectional study of 400 married women whose husbands were working abroad, long-distance relationships were associated with lower marital satisfaction (β = -0.355, p < .001) (Sadia et al., 2025). Trust significantly mediated this relationship (β = 0.424, p < .001), suggesting that lower levels of trust may be associated with poorer marital satisfaction during prolonged separation. In a study of 250 married individuals living apart due to occupational demands, loneliness, occupational stress, and social support together accounted for 12.1% of the observed differences in psychological distress (Olabimitan et al., 2025).
Across migration contexts, prolonged separation has been associated with psychological distress, reduced marital satisfaction, and increased role strain among non-migrant spouses (Agadjanian & Chae, 2023; Kofman et al., 2022; Thomas-Brown, 2023). These experiences occur within transnational family life, where partners maintain relationships across distance while navigating prolonged absence and changing relational expectations (Kofman et al., 2022). Migration-related separation alters household roles and responsibilities. Hussain et al. (2023) reported that wives headed approximately 44% of migrant households, indicating that many women assumed primary responsibility for childcare, household management, and other family obligations during their husbands' absence. These changes in daily life are linked to role strain and emotional burden, particularly in contexts where social and institutional support may be limited (Zheng & Yan, 2025). Collectively, these findings indicate that the effects of migration-related marital separation extend beyond physical distance and may affect both psychological well-being and relational stability.
Existing research indicates that migration-related separation is psychologically demanding across contexts (Nwankwo & Govia, 2022; Rai et al., 2023). At the same time, spouses differ in how they understand and respond to prolonged absence (Wurtz, 2022). Migration-related separation requires sustained relational adjustment, as families maintain emotional bonds across distance while renegotiating roles and responsibilities (Kofman et al., 2022; Luz et al., 2026; Rai et al., 2023). For spouses who remain in Jamaica, these adjustments often involve increased household responsibilities and the assumption of roles previously shared with the migrant partner.
Spouses understand migration-related separation differently. Some view the separation as the result of shared family goals and mutual decision-making, whereas others understand it as shaped by economic necessity and constrained opportunities, reflecting differing perceptions of autonomy. These differences are reflected in coping processes and in psychological and relational experiences across migration contexts (Wurtz, 2022). These circumstances highlight the importance of examining how Jamaican left-behind spouses make sense of prolonged migration-related marital separation and how these interpretations are reflected in coping processes, psychological well-being, and marital functioning.
Statement of the Problem
The problem that needs to be studied is that prolonged marital separation associated with labor migration in Jamaica creates psychological and relational strain among non-migrant spouses, including emotional burden, role strain, and diminished marital functioning. Migration-related separation is embedded in structural and economic conditions that shape how spouses experience prolonged absence (Jaupart, 2023; Thomas-Hope, 2025). Findings indicate that such separation is linked in the literature to psychological strain and changes in marital functioning (Rai et al., 2023; Zheng & Yan, 2025), while Jamaica-based research highlights its relational and well-being implications for non-migrant family members (Nwankwo & Govia, 2022). Spouses differ in how they interpret and respond to these experiences within their everyday lived contexts. Prior research has documented variation in how separation is experienced, particularly in relation to shared decision-making and the extent to which spouses perceive prolonged separation as voluntary or constrained by external circumstances (Wurtz, 2022). These differences are reflected in coping processes, psychological well-being, and marital functioning among affected spouses. In Jamaica, where migration affects many households, prolonged separation influences psychological well-being, marital functioning, and family life. Understanding how Jamaican left-behind spouses make sense of prolonged separation may inform more culturally responsive psychological support for spouses experiencing migration-related marital separation.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this IPA study is to explore how Jamaican left-behind spouses psychologically interpret and make sense of migration-related marital separation. Particular attention is given to how participants interpret prolonged separation in relation to shared decision-making, perceived autonomy, coping experiences, and marital functioning. In this qualitative IPA study, semi-structured interviews and brief reflective diaries will be used to examine participants' accounts of prolonged migration-related marital separation.
The study focuses on legally married Jamaican men and women residing in Jamaica whose partners have migrated overseas for employment and who have experienced at least 12 months of continuous marital separation. A qualitative IPA design is appropriate because it enables an in-depth examination of how participants construct meaning in the context of prolonged marital separation (Smith et al., 2009). Brief reflective diaries may provide deeper insight into participants' accounts of their experiences (Smith et al., 2021).
Research Questions:
RQ1. According to the lived experiences of Jamaican left-behind spouses, how do they make sense of prolonged marital separation caused by labor migration?
RQ2. According to the lived experiences of Jamaican left-behind spouses, how do participants interpret prolonged marital separation in relation to shared decision-making and perceived autonomy?
RQ3. According to the lived experiences of Jamaican left-behind spouses, how do participants describe the influence of prolonged marital separation on coping experiences and marital functioning?
Theoretical Framework
This study is informed by the transactional model of stress and coping (TMSC) and self-determination theory (SDT). TMSC provides a framework for understanding cognitive appraisal and coping processes associated with stressful experiences. SDT provides a framework for understanding perceived autonomy and psychological functioning during prolonged separation. These frameworks are relevant to understanding how Jamaican left-behind spouses make sense of prolonged separation within their everyday lived contexts and how these interpretations are reflected in coping processes, psychological well-being, and marital functioning. The frameworks also support examination of how spouses interpret and navigate prolonged separation within broader social and economic conditions associated with migration.
TMSC explains how individuals evaluate and respond to stressful experiences through cognitive appraisal and coping processes (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Primary appraisal involves evaluating whether an experience is perceived as stressful, threatening, or manageable, while secondary appraisal involves assessing available coping resources and response options. Within the context of prolonged migration-related marital separation, TMSC provides a framework for examining how spouses interpret prolonged absence, changing family responsibilities, and relational stressors associated with separation. Research utilizing TMSC indicates that appraisal processes are associated with differences in stress resilience, coping, and psychological adjustment across stressful contexts (Petri-Romão et al., 2025). Related research further suggests that individuals differ in how they interpret and navigate migration-related separation and adjustment experiences across transnational contexts (Wurtz, 2022). These findings support the relevance of TMSC for examining how Jamaican left-behind spouses make sense of prolonged separation and respond to psychological and relational stressors associated with migration-related absence.
SDT provides a framework for understanding experiences related to shared decision-making, perceived autonomy, and psychological functioning in conditions of prolonged separation (Ryan & Deci, 2017). SDT emphasizes the importance of autonomy and the extent to which individuals experience their actions and circumstances as self-endorsed or constrained. Contemporary SDT literature further highlights the psychological significance of autonomy support and autonomy frustration in shaping well-being and adjustment processes (Vansteenkiste et al., 2023). Research utilizing SDT suggests that perceptions of autonomy and relational support are associated with psychological and relational functioning across interpersonal contexts (Goodboy et al., 2022). Related research by Hardy et al. (2022) examined how perceived autonomy influences supportive processes within committed romantic relationships. The findings suggested that individuals who perceive greater autonomy are more likely to provide responsive support to their partners during stressful experiences. Rather than responding primarily from feelings of pressure or obligation, autonomy was associated with more internally motivated forms of relational support. These results indicate that perceived autonomy may shape how individuals interpret and respond to relational stress within close relationships. Collectively, these findings are relevant to understanding how spouses interpret migration-related separation in relation to shared decision-making, perceived autonomy, and broader social and economic conditions associated with migration. Within this study, SDT supports examination of how spouses make sense of prolonged separation and navigate relational and psychological challenges associated with migration-related absence.
Together, TMSC and SDT provide an interpretive basis for examining how Jamaican left-behind spouses make sense of prolonged migration-related marital separation. These frameworks support the examination of how spouses interpret prolonged separation and how these interpretations are reflected in coping experiences and marital functioning, with psychological well-being explored as an emergent theme when it arises in participants' accounts. These frameworks guide the analysis by informing how participants' accounts are coded and interpreted in relation to appraisal processes and perceived autonomy. The frameworks are used as interpretive lenses consistent with IPA, supporting exploration of participants' lived experiences and meaning-making processes rather than causal explanation.
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Significance of the Study
This research contributes to understanding the experiences of Jamaican left-behind spouses by exploring how they make sense of prolonged migration-related marital separation, a phenomenon associated with psychological and relational challenges among spouses who remain in the home country (Koirala, 2023; Zheng & Yan, 2025). By centering participants' interpretations of prolonged marital separation, the study aims to provide culturally grounded insight into how emotional well-being, coping, marital functioning, and family adjustment are experienced and understood within Jamaican transnational marriages. The findings may enhance understanding of the experiences of Jamaican left-behind spouses among researchers, practitioners, and community stakeholders. Greater understanding of left-behind spouses' emotional and relational experiences may inform the development of communication, coping, emotional support, and marital resilience initiatives during prolonged separation.
The findings may benefit psychologists, counselors, marriage and family therapists, social workers, churches, community organizations, policymakers, and social service agencies by offering insight into the emotional and relational experiences of Jamaican left-behind spouses and informing culturally responsive approaches to support transnational families. The study contributes by applying IPA to examine how Jamaican left-behind spouses make sense of prolonged migration-related marital separation. The study may contribute to psychological theory by providing a deeper understanding of how appraisal processes and perceptions of autonomy are reflected in the lived experiences of spouses navigating prolonged migration related marital separation. The study extends existing qualitative literature by examining how Jamaican left behind spouses construct meaning around migration related marital separation, an area that has received limited phenomenological attention within Caribbean psychology research.
Limitations, Delimitations, and Assumptions of the Study
A limitation of this study is the use of a small purposive sample, consistent with interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), which emphasizes the in-depth analysis of lived experience rather than statistical generalizability (Smith et al., 2021). Because the study relies on self-reported interviews and reflective diary data, participants' accounts may be influenced by recall bias, retrospective reconstruction of experiences, and memory limitations (Høffding et al., 2022), as well as social desirability bias or selective disclosure regarding sensitive marital experiences (Bispo Júnior, 2022). IPA involves a reflexive, interpretative, and analytic process, hence, the researcher's perspectives and assumptions may shape the interpretation of participants' narratives, although reflexivity and audit procedures may enhance analytic transparency and rigor (Smith et al., 2021). Because the study focuses exclusively on Jamaican left behind spouses, the findings may not be transferable to spouses experiencing migration related separation within different cultural, social, or economic contexts.
The study is delimited to legally married Jamaican men and women residing in Jamaica whose spouses are employed overseas and who have experienced at least 12 months of continuous marital separation. Unmarried couples and individuals separated for reasons unrelated to labor migration are excluded. These criteria were established to ensure a shared experience of prolonged migration-related marital separation in the Jamaican sociocultural context.
An assumption of the study is that participants will provide honest and accurate accounts during interviews and reflective diary activities. It is further assumed that these methods will generate rich qualitative data suitable for phenomenological analysis. The study assumes that participants are capable of reflecting upon and articulating the meanings they associate with prolonged migration related marital separation