Problem:
In Jamaica, expatriate employment and labor migration offer important economic opportunities but are frequently associated with depressive symptoms, anxiety, loneliness, perceived stress, and marital strain for spouses who remain behind (Nguyen et al., 2025; Zheng & Yan, 2025). These dynamics are particularly salient given Jamaica's high rates of emigration and the normalization of labor-related family separation (Jaupart, 2023). Research conducted in Jamaica indicates that husbands whose wives have migrated report significantly higher levels of physical illness symptoms compared to men whose partners remained in the country (p < .05), suggesting that migration-related separation may contribute to embodied health burdens among left-behind spouses (Nwankwo & Govia, 2022).
Evidence from non-Caribbean contexts provides additional support for these patterns. For example, a population-based study in China found that left-behind spouses reported significantly higher depression scores than those living in intact families, with 35.7% of rural left-behind women experiencing depressive symptoms (Niu & Wang, 2024). Longitudinal research further suggests that such psychological effects may persist beyond periods of separation, as depressive symptoms do not significantly decline following family reunification (Zheng & Yan, 2025). Within Jamaica, prolonged spousal separation has also been linked to relational strain, including diminished marital satisfaction and increased emotional burden among left-behind spouses (Nwankwo & Govia, 2022). Taken together, these findings indicate that while migration-related spousal separation is a global phenomenon, its psychological and relational consequences warrant focused examination within the Jamaican sociocultural context.
Existing research clearly demonstrates that migration-related spousal separation is associated with negative physical health, mental health, and relational outcomes. However, this body of research rarely examines how left-behind spouses appraise the separation itself, including whether it is experienced as voluntary, constrained, or externally imposed, which are central to stress appraisal and coping. In this study, perceived choice versus constraint refers to the extent to which spouses experience the separation as voluntary, controllable, and mutually agreed upon, versus externally imposed, economically coerced, or lacking personal agency. This gap is particularly salient in Caribbean contexts, where economic realities often limit genuine freedom of choice in migration decisions and may intensify the burden borne by left-behind spouses, with implications for outcomes such as depressive symptoms, loneliness, coping capacity, and marital satisfaction.
Background of the Problem
In the Caribbean, expatriate and labor migration constitutes a significant source of remittance inflows. Remittances play a crucial role in both individual households and national economies (World Bank, 2023). In several countries, including El Salvador, Honduras, Jamaica, and Haiti, remittances account for a substantial share of gross domestic product (GDP), exceeding 20% in some cases, underscoring their economic significance (World Bank, 2022a). At the household level, remittances function as an informal social safety net, supporting basic needs, education, and financial stability during periods of economic uncertainty (World Bank, 2022b; Harris et al., 2025; Maldonado, 2023). Consistent with this trend, Latin America and the Caribbean experienced one of the largest increases in remittances worldwide in 2021, reaching USD 131 billion, a 25.3% increase from the previous year (World Bank, 2022a). This growth highlights not only the role of remittances in sustaining national economies but also their importance for family survival and social support. In contexts where migration is closely tied to economic survival, such as the Caribbean, left-behind spouses may experience separation as structurally constrained rather than personally chosen, shaping psychological stress appraisal and relational adjustment. While remittances provide critical financial support that helps households meet basic needs and stabilize national economies, the emotional and relational costs of migration are often overlooked. When one spouse leaves home to work abroad, families must adapt not only economically but also socially and emotionally. Financial support may reduce material stress but does not replace emotional co-regulation, attachment needs, companionship, and shared problem-solving.
In Jamaica, where remittance inflows account for a substantial share of national income (approximately 14% of GDP), overseas employment has become a normalized and often economically necessary household strategy rather than a discretionary choice (McFarlane et al., 2022; Das, 2023). Remittances are a major source of income for many Jamaicans, with 43% of households receiving remittances, making Jamaica one of the top ten countries in the Caribbean and Latin America receiving remittances (McFarlane et al., 2022). This reliance underscores the extent to which Jamaican households depend on migrant family members for financial stability. Research shows that wives of international migrant workers frequently experience elevated levels of depression, anxiety, and stress, particularly when communication is limited or remittances are irregular (Basnet et al., 2025). Although remittances may alleviate some financial pressures, the absence of a partner can create sustained emotional strain and psychological challenges for the left-behind spouse, demonstrating that economic support alone cannot fully compensate for long-term separation and relational disruption (Adhikari, 2025). Taken together, these dynamics underscore the extent to which remittance-driven migration in Jamaica is closely intertwined with stress appraisal, perceived constraint, and the psychosocial well-being of left-behind spouses.
Over the past few decades, emigration from the Caribbean has increased substantially. In 1990, over 2.5 million individuals emigrated from the region; by 2020, this figure had grown to more than 6.1 million. Most emigrants originated from the Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Jamaica, collectively accounting for nearly three-quarters of Caribbean emigrants. During the same period, immigration into the region nearly doubled, surpassing one million individuals (World Bank, 2023). These migration patterns indicate that many families must continually adapt to transnational living arrangements in which one spouse resides and works abroad while the other remains behind. Within this context, previous studies have reported elevated psychological distress, including symptoms of stress, loneliness, and depression, as well as declines in marital satisfaction and relationship quality among left-behind spouses. Long-distance spousal relationships have thus become a socially normalized outcome of transnational and expatriate labor arrangements, requiring spouses to maintain emotional intimacy and relational stability across prolonged periods of physical separation, often under conditions of emotional strain.
A growing body of psychological research further demonstrates that chronic loneliness, intensified role strain, and relational stress among left-behind spouses represent substantial and often underestimated emotional challenges (Nwankwo & Govia, 2022; Escrig-Pinol et al., 2023). Similarly, Zheng and Yan (2025) found that 44.05% of individuals with left-behind experiences reported obsessive-compulsive symptoms, with depression scores increasing by approximately 1.16 units compared to individuals without such experiences. Additionally, long-distance spousal separation has been associated with poorer relationship quality and lower marital satisfaction among geographically separated couples (Sadia et al., 2025).
Collectively, these findings demonstrate that the consequences of transnational and expatriate marital separation extend beyond physical distance. In particular, prolonged separation is associated with enduring effects on psychological well-being and relational stability. Although the literature documents these outcomes, far less attention has been given to the subjective meanings left-behind spouses assign to migration-related separation, particularly within Caribbean contexts such as Jamaica (Nwankwo & Govia, 2022; Kutor & Arku, 2025). Addressing this gap is essential for developing a more comprehensive understanding of chronic stress exposure, emotion regulation burden, role overload, and reduced perceived control among left-behind spouses.
Furthermore, Jamaica's historical, cultural, and structural realities provide a compelling rationale for focused investigation. In Jamaica, prolonged spousal separation is widespread and frequently framed as a moral or economic necessity; however, this normalization often conceals the emotional strain experienced by left-behind spouses. Because separation is treated as routine, these experiences are frequently overlooked in large-scale psychological research. Examining the Jamaican context is therefore necessary not only to fill empirical gaps, but also to illuminate how individuals negotiate emotional bonds, obligation, and relational commitment when meaningful choice is constrained, as demonstrated in comparable migration contexts (Kutor & Arku, 2025).
Provide details regarding the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, with Self-Determination Theory serving as a complementary framework for understanding appraisal, autonomy, and coping during prolonged separation based on the information provided above. Need Assignment Help?