Assignment task:
Please read the section on Culturally Diverse Practice beginning on page 141. Please choose one of the cultural sections and discuss what you learned you might not have known whether some of your attitudes might have evolved, and how this might affect/improve your work with this population.
Working with African Americans
Lum (1996) suggests that from a historical perspective: The African American family has long existed within a well-defined, close-knit system of relationships. Authority and responsibility have been clearly assigned, and complex rules of behavior have embedded them in village and regional linkages. Family life in the United States was impaired by slavery, but the African American community has survived as an active unit to meet the needs of its members. The church is still a central community institution. (p. 95) Lum identifies underlying themes of the African American community to include "strong bonds of household kinship, an orientation to work for the support of family, flexible family roles, occupational and educational achievement, commitment to religious values, and church participation" (p. 95). This description of the essential values of the African American community often clashes with perceptions held by social workers who deal with clients who do not appear to fit this general model. For example, the frequency of-and problems associated with-adolescent pregnancy in inner-city communities suggests a breakdown of this value system. Stevens (1994) studied adolescent development and pregnancy among African American women. She suggests that current paradigms of adolescent pregnancy "tend to view the female adolescent's behavior as disordered, diseased or as an intergenerational transmission of psychological dysfunction" (p. 435). She argues that nonpathologic analysis of problematic behaviors is required to better understand and respond to this pattern. Her findings support the following theoretical perspectives: (1) Pregnancy can serve as a primary way of confirming existence and providing a sense of identity rather than the result of sexual acting-out behavior; (2) parenthood is perceived as a viable route to an adult social identity when opportunities for alternate routes of negotiating an adulthood status are blocked; and (3) the adolescent does not have to disconnect or individuate from familiar relationships for the development of self (p. 434). In comparing a group of 20 pregnant teens with 16 nonpregnant teens, she found that the nonpregnant females manifested a sense of care and responsibility to others in varied relationships and articulated more frequent self-expectancies for social mobility. They were actively engaged in church, work, and school environments. They demonstrated civic competency by being registered voters. Nonpregnant females were less restrictive in their dating and mating behaviors and experienced multiple dating partners (Stevens, 1994, p. 449). Stevens (1994) suggests that the findings supported the view that both pregnant and nonpregnant participants saw pregnancy as a way of "managing concerns for personal and social maturation" and providing a maturational experience and an indicator of adult status, and that they felt that their age group was mature enough to deal with parenting (p. 449). In summary, Stevens suggests that adolescent pregnancy, rather than being viewed as a sign of pathology, may be better explained as an alternate lifestyle choice. With this understanding, the social worker might well be advised to engage such a client with a nonpathologic orientation, focusing instead on both the adaptive and maladaptive aspects of this behavior. Stevens advocates for early intervention with troubled populations, before sexual decisions are made (e.g., primary and middle school prevention programs). She also suggests that social workers emphasize mother-daughter dyads, the adolescent peer group, mentor-apprenticeship programs, and collaborative programs with inner-city institutions. The issue of early pregnancy must also be considered in the light of politics. Recent efforts by some conservative political groups as well as by some issue groups opposing abortion have limited the ability of the Federal government to provide support for birth control efforts. One has to consider that pregnancy in low income population may be, in part, associated with lack of accessibility to birth control devices including the "day after" pill. Nonpathologic approaches to troubled clients are crucial to develop the working alliance in the early stages of engagement; however, the impact of long-term and persistent racism and discrimination have influenced many members of the African American community in their perception of social workers and others from the dominant society. Davis and Proctor (1989) suggest that "persons of African descent are especially reluctant to disclose themselves to whites, due to the hardships they and their forebears experienced in the United States" (p. 23). They suggest that this represents a special case of unwillingness to disclose themselves to any representatives of the White world, and that practice with black families may also be facilitated by the employment of certain practitioner styles. Practitioners should keep in mind that blacks in the United States have historically received less respect from this society than perhaps any other ethnic group. Hence, a style that indicates respect for them by the therapist will be positively received. As an example of demonstrating respect, the adult members of these families should be referred to, upon introduction, by their last names. The practitioner should not supplant the family's desire to be respected with his or her desire to be informal or even to establish a positive therapeutic rapport. Specifically, in the interest of establishing rapport, informality does not automatically facilitate the establishment of a sincere relationship. (p. 82) The importance of showing respect through the use of the last name was brought home by a participant in one of my workshops. Referring to her work with African Americans in the South, she emphasized the relatively recent history of slavery during which slaves had their last names ignored and were referred to by first names in a manner that was demeaning. Thus, efforts by young White workers to establish informality with elderly clients by using their first names were actually perceived as insulting.