Assignment task:
After reading the Validity, Reliability and Data Collection above. Considering the problem of students with disabilities in higher education by selecting three assessment tools that may be beneficial in measuring these effects. You must research psychological assessment tools to determine the best one. Justify the selection of each assessment tool as a measure for the problem or issue of students with disabilities in higher education. For each assessment tool, you will do the following:
1. Discuss the validity and reliability of each assessment tool
2. Compare and contrast these three assessment tools
Validity and Reliability
The quality of studies included was based upon the ability to replicate the study, studies that can be replicated have increased credibility (Creswell & Creswell, 2013). The consistency in results, as well as similarity in findings, makes a study more reliable. Literature from higher education institutions, scholarly published articles, and books by reputable authors and sources will be included in this study. There are ways to integrate quantitative and qualitative data into one database to check the accuracy (validity) of each (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). The data reviewed had acceptable reliability and validity (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Reliability of data was based upon studies that included evidence that studies entered into studies had documented disabilities. Bias can happen at any part of research, including study design or data collection, and during the process of data analysis and publications. The degree of bias was given consideration as part of the article review. Factors that were considered included the following. Pre-trial bias which was defined as risk and outcome, preferably with objective or validate methods (Gerhard, 2008). Being disabled student all my life, dealt with all kinds of injustice it is very easy to become bias about this article. One should be fair and practice justice regarding disability and college associated with it.
Data Collection
The data collection for this study was conducting in accordance with PRISMA. The first step in the process was extensive data collection completed through the use of academic databases like ProQuest, ERIC, Google Scholar, and Psych Articles. Most of the articles were located within The University's library. Majority of articles published within the 2012-2019 were studied. Key words that were searched in these databases included; "college students with a disability," "anxiety with higher education," "college and success," "college dropout," positive psychology," "CBT," "EBT," and stress with college." An analysis began right after a reliable data collected to process themes, reasons, and helping college students with a disability. After articles collected and filed in its own category, each pile organized and reviewed for processing. Once research of these academic databases was exhausted, use of websites such as The National Center for Education, American College Health Association, and other reputable and related websites with information associated with college and university students with disabilities were employed. In step two, journals that utilized studies included; Healthy Psychology, Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, Research in Developmental Disabilities, Learning and Individual Differences, Journal of College Students Development, and few other journals.
Step three is the methods is the most crucial part of a systematic review article. Results and discussion of the main findings from the view and then move on to discuss the limitations of the study and the reliability of the results (Majumder, 2015). All data collected was recent within the past five to seven years with noted exceptions where older studies were applied because they had large data sets or important information to provide for the overall outcome of this study. The key words searched and phrases used to search were, Psych Info, ProQuest, Google Scholar, and Psych Articles. Most of these articles gathered from California Southern University's library database, Google Scholar, government websites such as the National Center for Education Statistics, American College Health Association, and the National Institute of Mental Health used for some statistical information regarding anxiety in the higher education population. Keywords and phrases that were applied were included; "anxiety in higher education students," "US higher education students," "coping in higher education, "college dropout," "positive psychology," "CBT," "anxiety reduction," and stress with disability in college." The factors contributing to anxiety in this population, the successful treatments involving positive psychology, CBT, EFT, and the impacted anxiety physically, socially, and mentally in this group.
A total of 295 articles and books were reviewed. An excel spread sheet helped to organize the article title, citation, link documented for an easy access and location of each articles if needed. These steps are needed for a replication and follow up of next researcher to reproduce the research.
PRISMA was used to organize the information throughout the study. Each article was analyzed according to the previously stated criteria and information such as (a) sample demographics: age, geographic location, financial status, spiritual and religion preferences, and the gender; (b) article information, including year and journal source; and (c) types of help or intervention, including accommodations and psychological interventions.
The most popular journals have been utilized and significantly drawn upon for a tentative conclusion. These articles were obtained from Journal of Education and Practice, World Journal of Education, Disability and Society, American Psychiatric Association, Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, Journal of Advanced Nursing, Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, Teaching Exceptional Children, Rehabilitation Research, Policy, & Education, American Sociological Review, College Student Educators International, Journal of Rehabilitation, and few others. 290 articles were extracted and reviewed from these databases.
Data Analysis
In this study, a systematic analysis used to access data in this research. It was guided by the PRISMA Flow Diagram which describes the protocol in a systematic review. The following is the Diagram for this study as follows:
The first step in analysis was to identify how the studies related to each research question. After each research articles was selected, they were organized in a spreadsheet by the title, citation, link, and theme. Each article after being organized, reviewed according to their title, citation, link and theme to further study and link to the research. Each research question was carefully paid attention according to each articles and the subject in the research.
The second step in the process involved screening and eligibility of the study selection. The research questions were used for relating information to collect the credible articles. This made the screening the articles important and easier to research. This kind of research found to provide the information relevance to anxiety among higher education students with a disability and their success by reducing anxiety. Most of studies discussed higher education students in the US and an effort made finding articles from other nations related to the same subject.
The third step involved identifying the disabled higher education students type of disability, the family or care givers, and the results. Every articles conclusion was reinterpreted and analyzed for this study based on the focus of the research question. Articles that did not providing information about this research or research questions were screened out and separated aside.
The fourth step regarded assessing bias and excluding research that exhibited bias. Data analysis builds from specific to general themes, and finally, the researcher tries to make sense of and interprets the meaning of the data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). It is up to the researcher to limit bias to the best of their ability to have valid and reliable research (Creswell, 2013). In collecting data, analyzing it, and reporting, is an ethical way of study. Conducting this ethical study is the most important and ethical consideration should be part of any researcher. A kind of experimenter bias may be present in theoretical study is approaching towards a certain viewpoint and putting it in danger neutrality (Creswell, 2013). It is challenging to avoid, researcher bias should be limit to his or her best of ability in order to have dependable and credible research possible. To minimize bias in article selection, evaluation of value for this study will be based on the researchers' presentation of evidence, reasoning, and fairness in analysis, and presenting the conclusions and recommendations. In this study, no matter what kind of disability college students had, whether psychological or physical, their accommodation and understanding of their needs were respected and treated equally across participants.
The fifth step was development of themes. Positive psychology, CBT, and EFT are examples to work on students at higher education with disability to release the anxiety and fear of not succeeding in the process. This allows the future researcher to follow the research and try to duplicate the research for next generation. To find out why one higher education student does better than another one in considering all the conditions and circumstances are the same, the difference is on the attitude of that student toward life and how he or she looks at life with disability. Positive psychology and CBT are as effective and influencing the higher education students to face the challenges this group has to deal but if it does not apply to their life and education, then it is not the modality of exposing the therapy.
Generally, in researching students with a disability, the inquiry points to the understanding of this population's sociocultural perspectives. This method allows for authority over their lives rather than a biological understanding of disability (Mertens, 2009). Previous experiences working with this population or experiencing life as a disabled individual can influence this study. No matter how hard the researcher tries to stay objective, previous experiences may form the way he or she views and interprets the data collected. In this case, the researcher must clarify the bias he or she brings to the study. Self-reflection creates an open and honest narrative that will reflect well with readers (Creswell & Creswell, 2018).
Codes of ethics need to be consulted early in the development of any professional undertaking (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). In this doctoral project, ethical issues for the researcher and possible solutions were examined (Punch, 2014). The researcher must respect the rights, needs, values, and desires of the informant (s), first and foremost (Spradley, 1980). Ethical concerns for this current research study were limited since it was a theoretical review of previously published articles. However, the interpretation of data from the materials gathered to complete this study could pose ethical issues.
This researcher was aware of this potential for bias within the collection and interpretation of data and kept it in mind throughout the process to abstain from any form of unethical practices or bias that could arise. The data was collected, compiled, and reported from previously completed studies and academic journal articles, thus, no new data was collected. An additional ethical consideration was the perception of the researcher made by information learned. Researchers in many parts of the world may interpret and get the wrong impression of passage either by language or cultural barriers and biases in interpreting and understanding the studies reviewed.