Types of Theories Learning Theories – Needs In this section of learning theories, we notice that these theories all deal with needs. As we look at Maslow and his hierarchy of needs, we go from basic survival to individual fulfillment. Looking at ERG Theory, we note that there are existence needs, relatedness needs (belonging, love), and growth needs (self-actualization). When we are faced with conflicting needs, we must be able to choose. Process Theories Reinforcement Theory: We know from studying human behavior that a satisfying experience tends to be repeated and that a dissatisfying experience tends to be avoided. Therefore, there is both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Most applicable for training and the well-being of people is positive reinforcement. If we follow negative reinforcement further, we see that punishment decreases the likelihood of continuing a behavior all the way on the continuum to extinction, which means that this behavior is now gone. It is important for us, as trainers, to understand and to be able to apply the concepts of reinforcement. Expectancy Theory: This refers to the incompatibility between goals and actions. We need to understand what is valued most. By looking at the relationships between goals and actions, we can see that there are three levels in this theory: expectancy 1 is the level of success expected by the individual expectancy 2 is the individual's beliefs about successful outcomes valence is the individual's feelings about the outcomes and looks at both positive and negative results Social Learning Theory: We observe what is occurring. We then process the information that leads to learning and changes in behavior. Finally, we learn by observing others and note the consequences. Motivation As trainers, we need to understand what motivates or inspires a person to move in various directions. The more understanding we have regarding the psychology of human behavior, the more we can use this knowledge to help us move behavior from point A to point B. Psychologists tell us that a person reacts to certain tension. The moving away from this tension causes him or her to display certain behavior or reactions. There are three key factors we need to consider when we talk about motivation: Effort: This is the measure of the intensity. How hard does the person try to reduce the tension? Direction: We need to become aware of what the benefits are to the individual, the group, and the organization in order to channel this direction. Where do we want the person to go? Needs: This refers to the internal state that makes an outcome appear attractive. To further understand the significance of needs, refer to the theory section above. We are mainly concerned about a person's work behavior. So we must realize that this tension-reducing effort must be directed toward the organizational goals, but must also address the individual's needs. People will not change unless there is something in it for them. Change creates anxiety. What fears do adults have when faced with change as they must learn something new? There is the fear of the unknown, as in right now I know what works but I don't know what will happen during these changes. There is the fear of incompetence, as in I really don't know if I can learn this. There is the fear of losing rewards, as in what will happen to my status, will I get any new perks or rewards, etc. There is the fear of lost influence, as in I wonder if this training will make me more or less valuable. Finally, there is the fear of lost investments, as in I've spent a lot of time and energy learning to do it this way; why change now? We must address these fears before a person is ready to begin the training. Understanding all of these factors of getting someone ready to be trained includes an understanding of what motivates people. We must be aware of the key role values play in understanding human behavior. Values generally influence attitudes and behavior in that they lay a foundation forunderstanding and influence our perceptions. Values are not fixed, but rather they change over time. Values include the judgmental element ("what is right?"), the intensity element (how important is it?"), and the value system, which refers to the hierarchy of relative importance. By understanding values and how they relate to motivation, we can have a more effective handle on dealing with human behavior. Learning Learning is change. Training is how you make learning and change happen. Adult Learning Basics Adults decide for themselves what is important to be learned. They need to validate the information based on their beliefs and experiences. They expect that what they are learning is immediately useful and they have many past experiences to draw on. In fact, they may even have a fixed viewpoint on some issues. They are problem-centered, actively participate, and function best when in a collaborative environment. They respond best when they share in the planning. Learning Preferences There are the various learning tools, such as books, workbooks, audiotapes, videotapes, and computer-based materials. We must consider the learning atmosphere, such as whether it is indoors or outdoors, if it is quiet or noisy, if there are distractions around, if there is background music, the temperature of the room, and the visual stimuli present in the learning space. There are various learning formats, including one-on-one teaching, on-the-job training, small-group study, and large-group presentations. There is the leader who may be the boss, a co-worker, an expert, a facilitator, or the trainee may be self-directed. In almost all cases, we learn by doing something. We learn best by experiencing the process. Learning is an active process. Learning Outcomes Learning is a cognitive process. We use mental activity involving information storage, retrieval, and use. This is the process of thinking. By understanding this cognitive process we can then use this information in our training design in an effective way. We need to determine what needs to be emphasized. On the simple level there is verbal information, which includes facts, labels, and propositions. It is necessary to internalize this information by connecting it with previously learned knowledge and to develop a strategy for coding this information into our memory. We need to practice repeatedly, to have recall cues, and to take this information in meaningful chunks to be successful in learning it. We need to understand how we access our intellectual skills by linking the new knowledge with that which we have previously learned. It is this connection that allows us to continue learning. Without that connection, we would not be able to recall information or to put it into any cohesive order. In order to facilitate the retention process, we have three avenues we can use. First, there is symbolic coding, which is translating the information into symbols that the trainee finds meaningful. Second, there is cognitive organization, which tells how the new information relates to already known information and creates the desired associations. Finally, there is symbolic rehearsal, in which the trainee visualizes how the knowledge will be used. By understanding how each of these areas can be directed, we can determine which area needs to be emphasized in our training design. Role of Practice Practice is the physical or mental rehearsal of a task, knowledge, or skill to achieve proficiency. The employee must be able to demonstrate the learned capability (cognitive strategy and/or verbal information) emphasized in the training objectives under the conditions and performance standards specified in the objectives. So how does this occur? There are various ways of using practice most effectively: There is overlearning, which is the need to repeat practice of the skill, knowledge, etc., until it is internalized. There is the Part practice versus the Whole practice. Depending on the complexity of the material, sometimes it needs to be broken into sections, with each section practiced separately. Once all the sections have been learned, then the employee can practice the whole cycle. Effective practice conditions. Some questions to ponder may include: Can the employees identify their own mistakes and take corrective action on their own, or does a trainer need to be present to do this? Is this practice related to the training objectives? Is the practice taking place under the same conditions as those of the job? Are the trainees given feedback? If so, who gives this feedback? Can the employees also learn from each other? Is observing and interacting during the practice another way to learn? The Learning Cycle There are three stages of learning levels we need to understand. Stage one is the learning activity, in which the trainees learn through experience, observation, or demonstration. Stage two is the participant's response, in which the learners identify the impact of stage one, analyzing both their feelings and the information given. This is continuing the process of learning. Stage three is the application of learning, in which the participants move toward learning the concrete and begin to make generalizations, draw conclusions, and transfer them to their everyday life or on the job. This learning includes the concepts and theories that augment what was learned in the first two stages. It also includes action plans, goal setting, and other reinforced learning technologies. It is necessary to understand that learning must go through all three of these levels to transfer knowledge, skill, and ability to the trainees.
Question: After reviewing the training models and methodologies from this week's reading list, which approach would you be inclined to use or suggest for designing and developing training? Provide your rationale.